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North Pole

A precise definition
See also: Polar motion
The Earth is the axis of rotation and therefore the position of the North Pole is commonly accepted to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might "wobble" a little. By the early 20th century astronomers noticed a small spring "free variation", as determined by a fixed point on Earth observation of stars. Some of this variation can be attributed to a wandering of the pole on the surface of the Earth through a series of meters. The pilgrimage has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days are identified with the 8 month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called Chandler wobble after its discoverer. The exact point of intersection of the axis of the Earth and the Earth's surface at a given moment is called "instant center" but by the "wobble" that can not be used as a fixed definition of a North Pole (or South Pole), where the metric system accuracy is required.
It is appropriate to link the system of the Earth coordinates (latitude, longitude and altitude and relief) to the alleviation fixed. Of course, due to plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. However, the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems and Astronomical Union International has developed a framework called International Terrestrial Reference System.
Expeditions
See also: Arctic exploration, further north and the list expeditions in the Arctic
Pre-1900
From the sixteenth century, many eminent correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea that, in the nineteenth century was the century been called the Polar Polynia or Open Tues It was therefore expected that the passage could be found through the ice floes in the good times of the year. Several expeditions have tried to find the way, usually with the whalers, and is widely used in cold northern latitudes.
One of the first shipments from the intention explicit reach the North Pole was a British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached 8,245 latitude. In 1871, the Polaris expedition, an attempt America at the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, became a disaster. 18791881 An expedition led by naval officer of the United States, George Washington DeLong also ends tragically when his ship, the USS Jeannette was crushed by ice. More than half of the crew, including DeLong, were lost.
Fram Nansen Arctic ice boat
In April 1895, Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen and Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen struck out for the pole on skis after leaving Fram Nansen ship trapped in ice. The couple arrived in the latitude of the North 8614, before abandoning the attempt and went south, finally reaching the Franz Josef Land.
In 1897 the Swedish engineer Salomon August Andre and two companions tried to reach the North Pole by hydrogen balloon rnen ("Eagle") but were stranded 300 km Kvitya north, the northeast corner of the archipelago of Svalbard, and perished on this lonely island. In 1930, the remains of this expedition were discovered by the expedition Norwegian Bratvaag.
The Italian explorer Luigi Amedeo, Duke of Abruzzi Umberto Cagni and captain of the Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) sailed the whaler converts Stella Polaris Norway in 1899. On March 11, 1900 Cagni was a play on the ice and reached latitude 86 34 April 25, setting a new record, surpassing the result of 1895 Nansen of 35-40 km. Cagni barely made it back in the camp, where he remained until 23 June. On 16 August, Stella left Polare Rudolf island in the south and the issue returned to Norway.
19001940
The American explorer Frederick Albert Cook claimed to have reached the North Pole April 21, 1908 with two Inuit men and Etukishook Ahwelah, could not provide convincing evidence and its application is not accepted widely.
Peary sledge party "North Pole", 1909. From left to right: Ooqueah, Ootah, Henson, Egingwah, Seeglo.
Conquer the North Pole has long been credited to American Navy engineer Robert Peary, who claimed to have reached Pole April 6, 1909, accompanied by American Matthew Henson and four Inuit men named Ootah, Seeglo, Egingwah and Ooqueah. However, Peary's claim remains controversial. The party that accompanied Peary on the final stage of the trip does not include who was trained in navigation and could independently confirm his own work of navigation, some of whom claim to have been particularly sloppy as he approached the pole.
The distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have obtained once the party's support last round seems incredible to many people, almost three times what he had done so far. Peary story of a journey to the Pole and back while traveling to along the direct line of the only strategy that is consistent with the time constraints they face is contradicted by Henson's account becomes spool to avoid peaks pressure and has been open.
British explorer Wally Herbert, first defender of Peary, Peary research issues in 1989 and concluded that must have been forged and that Peary did not reach the pole. Support for Peary came again in 2005, however, when the British explorer Tom Avery and four colleagues recreates the outer journey sled wooden replica of Peary and Canadian Eskimo Dog teams, to reach the North Pole in 36 days, 22 hours, nearly five hours faster than Peary. Avery wrote on his website that "The admiration and respect as Robert Peary, Matthew Henson and four Inuit men who ventured North in 1909, has grown considerably since leaving Cape Columbia. After seeing for myself how it travels through the ice, I am more convinced than ever that Peary had actually discovered the North Pole. "
The first flight was on the pole was held May 9, 1926 by official U.S. Navy, Richard E. Byrd and pilot Floyd Bennett a Fokker tri-motor. Although verified at the time of the U.S. Navy and a committee of the National Geographic Society, this assertion has been questioned.
The first post indisputable observation was May 12, 1926 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ellsworth American godfather of the dirigible Norge. Norge but which belongs to Norway, was designed and piloted by the Italian Umberto Nobile. The flight started from Svalbard and crossed the ice Alaska. Nobile, and several scientists and crew of the Norge, flew on the pole for the second time on May 24, 1928 in the airship Italia. The Italia crashed on its return from the pole, with the loss of half of the crew.
19402000
In May 1945 a Royal Air Force Lancaster Aries is the expedition became the first aircraft to fly over the North Pole of the Commonwealth of the Northern and magnetic. The plane was flown by David Cecil McKinley Royal Air Force. Carried a crew of 11 men, with Kenneth C. Maclure de la Real Fuerza Air Canada in charge of all scientific observations. In 2006, Maclure was honored with a place in the Canadian Aviation Hall of Fame.
contested application Update Peary, the first men to walk on the North Pole were, according to some sources, a party of the Soviet Union. These are described as including Pavel Gordiyenko (O Geordiyenko) and three or five, or Aleksandr Kuznetsov and 23 others who landed a plane (or planes) is April 23, 1948. According Antarctica.org, three Li-2 planes landed, with a total of seven men.
On May 3, 1952, the U. S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher and Lieutenant William P. Benedict XVI, and the scientist Albert P. Crary has a C-47 Skytrain amendment to the North Pole. Some sources consider this (instead of the Soviet mission) to the first landing in the post.
USS Skate at the North Pole, 1959
United States Navy submarine USS Nautilus (SSN-571) crossed the North Pole on August 3, 1958, and March 17, 1959, USS Skate (SSN-578) surface at the pole, becoming the first ship to sea to do so.
Leaving aside the demand Peary first surface confirmed the conquest North Pole was that of Ralph Llanos, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Bombardier, Jean-Luc, who rode the snowmobile ice and arrived April 19, 1968. Air Force United States confirmed its position independently.
On April 6, 1969, Wally Herbert and companions Allan Garcia Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the British Trans-Arctic Expedition became the first man to reach the North Pole on foot (although with the help of dog teams and air drops). It went on to complete the first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean and its major axis, Barrow, Alaska, Svalbard, a feat that has never been repeated. Because of the suggested uses transport Llanos air, some sources classified as the first shipment Herbert confirmed to reach the North Pole on the ice surface, by any means.
Memorial in honor Icebreaker Arktika conquer the North Pole in 1977 in the lobby of the museum of local traditions of the Murmansk region
On August 17, 1977, the Soviet icebreaker Arktika surface nuclear propulsion of the ship made the first trip to the North Pole.
In 1982, Sir Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton became the first to cross the Arctic Ocean in a season. They left Cape Crozier, Ellesmere Island, February 17, 1982 and arrived at the True North Pole April 10, 1982. They traveled on foot and by snowmobile. Polo, who traveled south Svalbard, but due to the unstable nature of the ice after crossing the edge of the drift ice then south on ice for 99 days. They were finally able walking to dispatch the ship "MV Benjamin Bowring and raised the August 4, 1982 in position 80:31 0:59 N W. After this trip, which formed a section Transglobe Expedition three years 19791982, Fiennes and Burton were the first to complete a world tour through both North and South Poles, the layer travel unique. This achievement remains unanswered to this day.
On September 7, 1991, the German vessel RV Polarstern research and Swedish icebreaker Oden reaches the North Pole the first of the conventionally powered vessels .. Both scientists parties and oceanographic samples and geological crew and had a tug common war and a football game on ice. Polo Polarstern reached exactly 10 years after the USCGC Healy.
Century 21
Charlotte USS North Pole in 2005
In recent years, travel to the North Pole by air (helicopter or landing on a track formed in the ice) or breaking the ice became quite common, and even available to small groups of tourists through a company holiday adventure.
In 2005, States U.S. Navy submarine USS Charlotte (SSN-766) surface to 155 cm (61 inches) of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours there.
In April 2007, performance artist Dutchman Guido van der Werve created a work of art at the North Pole. To be exactly on the pole for 24 hours and turning slowly clockwise (the earth rotates to the left) while from his own shadow, Van der Werve, literally, will not turn the world one day. This performance is called "Nummer Negen [Dutch Number Nine] the day that do not revolve with the world. "Van der Werve elapsed time 24 hours 9 minutes.
In July 2007, British endurance swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh completed a 1km swim at the North Pole. His feat, undertaken to highlight the impact climate change took place in clear water that had opened up between the floes. His last attempt to kayak to North Pole in late 2008, following the erroneous prediction of clean water for the pole, was blocked during his expedition was trapped heavy on the ice after only three days. The expedition was abandoned.
A 2007 episode of BBC Top Gear cars, which were the presenters described as a pilgrimage to the North Pole, "was actually a 1996 expedition to the position of the Magnetic North Pole.
2007 to the North Pole Funds Marine
Main article: Arktika 2007
On August 2, 2007, a Russian VASU [clarify] made the first manned descent to the ocean at the north pole, at a depth of 4.3 km, as part of a research program to support the claim of Russia in 2001 the land over a wide band the Arctic Ocean. The raid was carried out two MIR submersibles was led by Russia and the Soviet Union polar explorer Arthur Chilingarov. In a symbolic gesture, the Russian flag was placed on the lower in the exact position of the post.
The expedition is the latest in a series of decades of moves by Russia to demonstrate that it is the dominant influence in the Arctic. Retirement warming Arctic climate and sea ice in the summer suddenly turned the attention of countries from China to the United States to top of the world where resources and shipping routes may soon be exploited.
Day and night
See also the midnight sun and polar night
North Pole the sun is constantly above the horizon during the summer months and permanently below the horizon during the winter months. Sunrise just before the equinox spring (around March 19), the sun takes three months to reach a peak elevation of about 23 summer solstice (around June 21) after which begins to run, to reach the sunset just after the autumnal equinox (around September 24). When the sun is visible in the polar sky, which seems to move in a clockwise circle above the horizon. This circle represents gradually from near the horizon, just after the spring equinox to its maximum height (Degrees) above the horizon at the summer solstice and then sink back into the horizon before sinking beneath the autumnal equinox.
A period of civil twilight approximately two weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset, a time of five weeks nautical twilight before sunrise and after sunset product and astronomical twilight period of about seven weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset.
These effects are caused by a combination the tilt of Earth's axis and its revolution around the sun. The direction of the tilt of Earth's axis and its angle to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun, it remains almost constant during one year (two evolve very slowly over long periods). In summer the north to the North Pole faces the sun at its maximum. During the year the Earth moves around the Sun, the North Pole is moving away from sunlight until the middle of winter, the opposite side of the Sun at its maximum. A sequence is similar in the South Pole, with a period of six months apart.
Time
In most places on Earth Local time is determined by the length, so the time of day is more or less synchronized with the position of the sun in the sky (eg midday, the sun is almost at its highest level). This line reasoning ignores the North Pole where the sun rises and sets once a year, and all lines of longitude, and therefore all time zones converge. No presence permanent human at the North Pole, not the particular time zone has been assigned. polar expeditions can use any time zone that is convenient, as in Paris or the area time of the country they departed from.
Weather
Withdrawals from the Arctic in 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to the average 1979-2000.
The North Pole is much hotter than the South Pole, and that is in sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than altitude in a continental land mass.
Winter (January) temperatures at the North Pole can range from about 43 C (45 F) to 26 C (15 F), perhaps an average of about 34 C (30 F). Summer average temperatures (June, July and August) around the freezing point (0 ° C, 32 F).
Sea ice at the North Pole in general around two or three feet thick, although there is considerable variation and occasionally the movement of floes exposes clear water. Studies showed that the average thickness of ice has declined in recent years. Many attribute this decline to global warming, although this conclusion is disputed by some. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be completely ice-free during the summer months. This may have important commercial implications, see "claims territorial "below.
Flora and fauna
Polar bears are rarely travel beyond about 82 due to shortages in the North, despite the slopes are seen near the North Pole expedition and 2006 reported seeing a polar bear just one mile (1.6 km) from the pole. The ringed seal also was observed at the pole, and arctic foxes were observed within 60 km at 8940 N.
Birds seen at or very near the pole is snow Bunting, Northern Fulmar and Kittiwake, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the tendency of birds to track ships and shipping.
The fish were observed in the waters of the North Pole, but probably are few. A member of the Russian team that dropped back to the North Pole in August 2007 saw no sea creatures living there. However, most reported late that a sea anemone was collected in the mud of the sea by the Russian team and video images of the dive showed unidentified shrimp and amphipods.
Land says the North Pole and Arctic regions
Main article: Territorial claims in the Arctic
Under international law, no country currently owns the North Pole or the Arctic Ocean region surrounding it. The five countries bordering the Arctic, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark (via Greenland), and the United States (via Alaska), are limited to one mile of 200 nautical miles (370 km, 230 km) exclusive economic zone around to its shores, and the area administered by the International Seabed Authority.
When ratifying the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has a term of ten years to claim the area extending 200 miles. Norway (ratified the Convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) have launched projects based on claims that certain Arctic sectors should belong to its territory.
Associations cultural
In some Western cultures, the geographic North Pole is the residence of Santa Claus. Canada Post has assigned postal code H0H 0H0 North Pole (Exclamation traditional reference of Santa Claus "Ho-ho-ho!").
This partnership reflects the old esoteric mythology of Hyperborea, which postulates the North Pole, the world beyond the axis, as the abode of God and superhuman beings (see Joscelyn Godwin, Arktos: The Polar Myth.) Popular figure cane Santa Claus house functions as an archetype of spiritual purity and transcendence esoteric (). As Henry Corbin has documented, North Pole plays a fundamental role in the cultural worldview of esoteric Sufism and Iranian mystic. "The results of the mystical East, the Orient, which can not be displayed on our maps, is in the north, beyond the north. "The group also identified a mysterious mountain in the Arctic Ocean, called Mount Qaf (see RUPES Nigra), whose rise, like Dante climb the mountain of Purgatory, represents a breakthrough for the pilgrims through spiritual states. In Iranian theosophy, the celestial pole, the focal point of spiritual ascension, acts as a magnet for loved his "palaces ablaze with immaterial matter."
Flights fantasy often refer to a flight to the North Pole for the same reasons.
See also
South Pole
Arctic exploration
Polaris
Inuit Circumpolar Council
Arctic Council
The Arctic Circle
Biome
North Pole, Alaska
Global warming
Santa Claus
References
^ Russian sub plants flag at North Pole, Reuters, August 2, 2007
^ John K. Geographical Wright, vol. 43, No. 3. (July 1953), p. 338-365 "The open polar sea"
^ Henderson, ISBN B. (2005) WW Norton & Company North actual 32 738 0393 8
^ Http: / / www.heritage.nf.ca / exploration / pearyfrontis.html
^ Obituary, The Independent June 16, 2007
^ Tom Avery website, back in May 2007
^ North Pole Flight of Richard E. Byrd: An Overview the dispute, Byrd Polar Research Center Ohio State University
Cheap ^ Ram 1945, Hugh A. Halliday, Legion Magazine
^ Guinness Book of Records, 1998 Edition
^ A Brief Chronology of the approaches to the Poles, RK headers, Vol DIO. 4 N º 3
^ A brief chronology of the proximity of the poles, Scott Polar Research Institute
^ Antarctica.org
^ The facts of the history of aviation, U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission
Obituary Sir Wally Herbert ^, Times Online, June 13, 2007
^ Ab Sir Wally Herbert Obituaries June, Guardian Unlimited 15, 2007
^ northpolewomen.com
^ Ftterer, D. et al. (1992) The Expedition ARK-VIII / 3 of RV Polarstern in 1991 Reports on Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, 107, 267 pp, hdl: 10013/epic.10107.d001 (PDF 6.4 MB)
^ Thiede, J. et al. (2002) Polarstern Arktis XVII / 2 Gear Ratio: AMORE 2001 (Arctic Expedition dorsal Sea), Polar and Marine reports Research in Bremerhaven, 421, 390 pp, hdl: 10013/epic.10426.d001 (pdf 8 MB)
^ USS Charlotte landmark is placed on the ice during the transportation, marine NewsStand website, retrieved May 2007
^ Artist website
^ Swimmer rises to Arctic challenge, BBC News, 15 July 2007
^ BBC Top Gear Production Notes (Polar Special)
^ (Russian) press release of the Aari July 9, 2007
^ ab Russia plant a flag on North Pole, BBC News, 2 August 2007
^ (Russian) News video of Russian descent to North Pole background
^ BBC video of Russian origin to the North Pole background
^ Russia to the North Pole Obsession, The New York Times, 02 August 2007
^ The Big Melt, The New York Times, October 2005
^ "Science Question of the week", Goddard Space Center
^ More Beyond "Polar Express": Highlights in the true North Pole, National Geographic News
ab ^ top of the world: The North Pole regard to water John L.? Daly
^ "The thickness of Arctic sea ice drops to 19 percent," the Daily Telegraph of 28 October 2008
^ Arctic sea ice 'Faces rapid melt' history, BBC News, December 2006
^ Polar Bear – Population and distribution, WWF, January 2007
Explorers blog ^ ', Greenpeace Project Thin Ice, July 1, 2006
^ Nests on ice rings, Antti Halkka
^ The arctic fox Tannerfeldt Magnus
^ Ab over the north polar bears (Ursus maritimus)
^ "North Pole sea anemone called most species of the North", The Observer, August 2, 2009
^ "United Nations Law of the Sea (Annex 2, Article 4). Http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/annex2.htm. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
Abcd ^ http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/status2007.pdf
^ The Battle for the next frontier of energy: The Russian Expedition Polar and future of the oil from the Arctic by Yenikeyeff Midkhatovich Krysiek Shamil and Timothy Fenton, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007
^ "Canada Post Launches 24th Annual Santa Letter-writing program "Canada Post press release, November 15, 2006
^ Corbin, The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism, trans. Pearson N., 1978
^ Ibid., P. 44
^ Ibid., P. 11
External Links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to the North Pole
Arctic Council
The Northern Forum
North Pole travel guide from Wikitravel
North Pole Web Cam
The short Arctic summer of 2004
The Arctic had Curiosity 2003
Examination of fusion surface 2002 to date revealed at the North Pole Web Cam
Frequently Asked Questions about the Arctic and the North Pole
Polar Disputes still rage by Roderick Eime article
Magnetic Poles locations since 1600 Download the KMZ file. For users of Google Earth.
The Polar Race a career 1996 biennial certified heading North Magnetic Pole
The Polar Challenge an annual race to the Magnetic North Pole
Daylight, darkness and change station at the North Pole
Video of the scientists on the ice at the North Pole as it begins to crack under the feet
Experts warn North Pole will "Free of ice by 2040
Goudarzi, Sara, "The collapse: Ice Cracks at North Pole." September 2006, at LiveScience, Link> Web>, accessed January 29, 2007.
"The North Pole was here: puzzles and perils at the top of the world (first chapter)"
Video of the icebreaker nuclear Yamal visiting the North Pole in 2001
Polar Discovery: Observatory North Pole expedition
Extreme points of Earth | Geography of Canada | Categories: Navigation | Poles | Geography of ArcticHidden categories: All pages needing cleanup | Wikipedia articles needing clarification March 2009 About the Author

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